The Babylonian Enuma Elish, also known as The Seven Tablets of Creation, is one of the oldest surviving creation myths. The story narrates the epic battle between the god Marduk and the primordial goddess Tiamat, which resulted in the creation of mankind and the establishment of an enduring order in heaven and on earth.
No one alive today “believes” in this myth. The cuneiform tablets containing the poem were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, Marduk exerts considerable influence over the world-dominating cultures today.
In this episode, I tell you the myth, provide some historical context, and consider the role it has–and might yet– play in the ongoing creation of culture.
Transcript of Gates of Babylon: The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Creation Myths
Hello, and welcome to Myth Matters, storytelling and conversation about mythology and what myth can offer us today. I’m your host and personal mythologist Dr. Catherine Svehla. Wherever you may be in this wide, beautiful, crazy world of ours, you are part of this story circle.
In the last episode I talked about creation myths and I want to look at that topic again today. Taken literally, these stories often seem very far from any truth, especially the myths of other peoples and cultures–the ones that you’ve never been encouraged or required to believe. The resonance between the ancient myths and contemporary science, in the descriptions of great floods and other catastrophic events, is pretty remarkable. But the primary power and value of our creation myths is the view they provide of human nature and the correct human life. What are we made of and so, why are we are?
Are we on earth to keep god or the gods, company, for example, or to be in service to them? Do we have a special role to play? Did our creation complete a divine vision of cosmic perfection? Was it the result of a cosmic logic that governs the proliferation of forms and consciousness? Or a purely material evolutionary process across billions and billions of years? Your answers to these questions matter.
Today I’m going to tell you about a very old creation myth, one of the oldest surviving creation myths, one that no one alive today “believes” that nevertheless exerts considerable influence over the world-dominating cultures today. This is the Enuma Elish, also known as The Seven Tablets of Creation. This Babylonian creation myth is the story of Marduk and the defeat of Tiamat.
The poem was written by an unknown author. We’re not sure when it was first recorded. The imprint of the Sumerian mythology is clear. Tablets containing the poem were excavated from the ruins of Ashurbanipal’s library in Nineveh. These date to the 12th century BCE but scholars believe they are copies of a much older version of the myth, one that predates the reign of Hammurabi which was 1792-1750 BCE. I’ll come back to Hammurabi later in this episode.
The Enuma Elish and the life it’s led in the centuries since the defeat of the Babylonians is an interesting example of the intimate relationship between our stories about the creation of the world, and the creation of culture and models of right living for human beings. The history of this myth reveals the far-reaching effects of the past upon the present– and so, the future– and the need, I think, for deliberate reflection, challenge, or embrace of this heritage.
Let me tell you the myth and I’ll offer some reflections. My telling of the myth of Marduk and the defeat of Tiamat, commonly called “When on high” or “When above,” includes passages from the translation by W.G. Lambert titled “Mesopotamian Creation Stories” in the collection Imagining Creation.
Now I invite you to relax for a few minutes and let yourself listen to the story. See where it takes you and what opens in your mind’s eye. Note any moment or detail that snags your attention. What the story provokes in you and for you is a useful starting point for your reflection on your myth of creation and its influence on your life.
“When On High” or the ancient Babylonian Enuma Elish
When the heavens above did not exist, and earth beneath had not come into being —
When not one of the gods had been formed or had come into being, when no destinies had been decreed, there was only water.
Apsû, the sweet fresh water of the rivers and the rain and Tiamat, the salt water of the sea, they mingled together. The gods were created within them. Tiamat gave birth to them all.
The first born were Lahma and Lahamu, silt carried in the water, followed by Anshar and Kishar, Heaven and Earth. Anshar and Kishar produced the sky god Anu and from there, well, the gods quickly multiplied.
These gods were a rowdy and boisterous bunch. At first, Tiamat was pleased with all of her children and the changing nature of the world. But after awhile, the constant noise got on her nerves. These young gods danced and partied every night and into the morning. They disturbed her sleep.
Tiamat wasn’t happy with their behavior but she wanted to be gentle with the young gods. She didn’t say anything to them. Her husband Apsû didn’t speak with them either. He called his counselor Mummu and they went to talk with Tiamat.
The three of them had a meeting about the young gods and their noise. “I can’t rest in the day-time or sleep at night,” Apsû said. “I will destroy and break up their way of life so silence may reign and we can sleep.”
When Tiamat heard this, she raged and cried out to her spouse. She cried in distress, fuming within herself. She grieved over the plotted evil. “How can we destroy what we have given birth to?” she said. “Though their behavior causes distress, let us tighten discipline graciously.”
Mummu the counselor said, “Destroy, my father, that lawless way of life, that you may rest in the day-time and sleep by night!” Apsû was pleased with him. His face beamed because Mummu had plotted evil against the gods, his sons. Mummu put his arms around Apsû’s neck and kissed him like a son.
This plotting was reported to the young gods. The news made them frantic. They were overcome with silence and sat quietly.
Ea, the god of wisdom and depth, creator and patron of craft, was one of those young gods present Ea knew the arts of sorcery. He knew everything. He fashioned a response to the plot. He drew a magic circle around the gods to protect them and recited and incantation that he set on the waters. Then he went to Apsû and Mummu while they slept. Ea tore Apsû onto pieces ripped off his crown, and killed him. Ea took Mummu prisoner. He beat him and tied him up.
Ea had bound and slain his enemies and achieved victory over his foes. He rested quietly in his chamber. He decided to make his home from Apsû’s remains and take over the god’s shrine. Ea set up his living-quarters there and brought his wife Damkina to live with him there in the chamber of destinies.
This is where Marduk, the son of Ea and Damkina, was born. He was suckled and reared by goddesses and he was mighty from the beginning. He filled his grandfather Anu’s heart with joy and Anu gave him more gifts. He made Marduk perfect in beauty, and courage, and strength. Marduk became very lofty, incapable of being grasped with the mind, hard even to look on. He had four eyes which took in everything. He had four ears that grew large and heard everything. Flame shot forth as he moved his lips. He was superior to all of the other gods.
Marduk was clothed in the radiance of ten gods. His majesty inspired fear.
Now Anu created four great winds. They moved over the sea like a hurricane and greatly disturbed the waters of Tiamat. The winds blew day and night and the waves rose and roared. Tiamat was frantic.
Some of the gods, Tiamat’s children, were not part of the loud parties and games of the younger gods. Now they went to Tiamat and said, “When your spouse Apsû was killed you didn’t go to his side, but sat quietly. Now you sit alone. The four dreadful winds have been fashioned and they blow and blow. They are meant to throw you into confusion and we can’t sleep. None of us will be happy again and you do nothing because you don’t love us. Make battle and avenge us.”
Tiamat was pleased by the support of these children. “I will take your advice,” she said. “First, let’s make some demons.”
Tiamat gave birth to a host of demons and dragons and monsters to fight alongside her and these gods. The great serpents had sharp teeth. They were merciless and she filled their bodies with poison instead of blood. She clothed the fearful monsters with dread, loaded them with an aura and made them godlike. She created the Hydra, the Dragon, the Hairy Hero, the Great Demon, the Savage Dog, and the Scorpion-man, the Fish-man, and the Bull-man. They were all fearless in battle.
Among the gods, her loyal sons, she exalted Kingu and made him her consort and champion. She gave him leadership of the army and set him on the throne. “I have cast the spell for you and exalted you in the host of the gods,” she told him. “You will rule all of the gods, my spouse, you are renowned.” Then she fastened the Tablet of Destinies to Kingu’s breastplate.
Now Anshar, the god of heaven, heard these preparations and was profoundly disturbed. His heart was in a fury. He went to Ea and said “My son, you have provoked this war and must take responsibility. You killed Apsû and enraged Tiamat, who has no equal.” Ea, the creator of wisdom, was calm. In soothing words, he said, “My father, deep mind, who decrees destiny and has the power to bring into being and destroy, calm down for me for a moment and consider that I performed a helpful deed.”
Anshar thought and said “Yes, your deeds are fitting for a god. Go to Tiamat and explain to her, use your charm. Work your magic.” Ea left to appease Tiamat. But on his way he perceived her plans. He turned back and went to his father. “My father,” he said, “Tiamat is too angry and too strong for my incantations. She won’t accept apologies, I’m afraid. But send a second person to talk with her. Though a woman’s strength is very great, it is not equal to a man’s. Send another who can break up her plans.”
Anshar was desperate. So, he called his son Anu the sky god. “Honored son, hero, warrior whose strength is mighty,” he said, “hurry to Tiamat. Stand before her and appease her rage, relax her heart. Make our petition of peace.”
Anu took the road to Tiamat and on the way he perceived the tricks of Tia-mat, stopped, fell silent, and turned back. “My father,” he said to Anshar, “Tia-mat’s deeds are too much for me. I perceived her planning and my words are not equal to it. I became afraid and turned back. But don’t lose hope. Send another person against her. Though a woman’s strength is very great, it is not equal to a man’s. Send another who can break up her plans.”
All of the young gods and the older gods who hadn’t gone to Tiamat assembled, tight-lipped and silent. Not one of them would go to face Tiamat. Anshar knew this and didn’t even ask. He was very angry but what could he do?
Now Ea went to his private chamber and summoned his son Marduk and gave him a plan. “Go to Anshar and tell him that you will go against Tiamat.”
Marduk went to Anshar and stood before him. Anshar was pleased and kissed him. “I will go and fulfill your desires,” Marduk said. “Who has drawn up his battle array against you? Is it Tiamat, a woman, who would attack you? Rejoice and be glad. Soon you will tread on the neck of Tiamat. Anshar, lord of the gods, if I should be your avenger, if I should defeat Tiamat on your behalf, then convene an assembly of the old gods and have them proclaim me ruler. Let me decree destinies instead of you and establish my order.
Anshar sent for the other old gods. “What has gone so wrong,” they ask, “that Tiamat would make war against us? We didn’t know what she was doing.” They sat down to eat and drink ale together and their mood lifted. They agreed to name Marduk their avenger. They set up a throne for Marduk and told him that would be ruler and king over the sum of the universe. “Spare the god who is good and trusts you,” they tell him, “And destroy the one with evil in his heart.”
Then they propose a demonstration– or is it a test– of Marduk’s power.
“Command and bring about annihilation and re-creation,” they said. “Speak the word and make a constellation disappear. With a second command make the constellation reappear.” Marduk gave the command and the constellation disappeared. With a second command the constellation came into being again.
When the gods, his fathers, saw this power they rejoiced and offered congratulation. “Marduk is the king!” They gave him a mace, a throne, and a rod. They gave him an irresistible weapon that overwhelms the foe and said “Go, cut Tiamat’s throat and let the winds bear up her blood to give the news.” They set him on the road to prosperity and success.
Marduk fashioned a bow and set an arrow in place. He took up his club and held it in his right hand. He placed lightning before him and filled his body with tongues of flame. He made a net to enmesh the entrails of Tiamat and stationed the four winds– the South Wind, the North Wind, the East Wind, the West Wind— to batter and hold her from all sides and commanded the seven storm winds to obey him. Then he took up his thunderbolt, mounted his chariot, and went to Tiamat and her army. A halo appeared around his head.
When Marduk saw Tiamat and Kingu and the rest of her army, he faltered. He lost his nerve. Then he felt the power of the winds that he had brought. He shouted accusations at Tiamat.
“Why are you aggressive and arrogant, ready to provoke battle? The younger generation have shouted, outraging their elders, but you, their mother, hold pity in contempt. Kingu you have named to be your spouse and you have improperly appointed him to the rank of ruler against Anshar, king of the gods. You have stirred up trouble against the gods, my fathers. Deploy your troops. Gird on your weapons. You and I will take our stand and do battle.”
When Tiamat heard these words, her anger had no bounds. She lost all reason. While the gods were still sharpening their weapons she rushed at Marduk. Marduk spread his net and caught her up. He let loose and evil wind and she couldn’t close her lips. the wind filled her belly and stretched it and Marduk let loose an arrow. It pierced her belly and split her heart. She could not move. She was killed.
Marduk took down her carcass and stood on it. He crushed her skull. He severed her arteries and had the North wind bear up her blood and carry the news.
When Kingu and Tiamat’s army saw this, they cowered with fear. Marduk tied them with ropes and trampled them. He took the Tablet of Destinies from Kingu and tied a rope through Kingu’s nose. Marduk put on the tablet.
Marduk’s father gods were glad. They brought him gifts. Marduk paused over the dead body of Tiamat. He thought he might divide her carcass and make something from it. he divided her bodies into two parts. Half of her he set up and stretched out as the heavens. He set up constellations, the patterns of the stars. He appointed the year, marked off divisions. He set up three stars each for the twelve months after he had organized the year.
He created heavenly stations for the great gods: Anu, Enlil, and Ea.
From the other half of Tiamat’s dead body, Marduk fashioned the earth, excavating for mountains and bending her tail to make the Milky Way. He pierced her eyes to form the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Ea and Damkina, his parents, and the other father gods organized a celebration. They honored Marduk and proclaimed his wisdom and power. They anointed his body with cedar perfume and kissed his feet.”Henceforth you are the caretaker of our shrine,” they told him, “Whatever you command, we will do!”
Marduk addressed the gods, his fathers. “Here on earth, beneath the celestial parts, whose floor I made firm, I will build a house to be my luxurious abode. Within it I will establish its shrine and my kingship. When you come to make a decision, this will be your resting place before the assembly. I shall call its name ‘Babylon’, “The Homes of the Great Gods.'”
Then Marduk had another idea. Addressing his father Ea, the god of wisdom, he said,” “I will bring together blood to form bone, I will make the creatures whose name shall be ‘man,’ and man will work so the god’s may rest.” Ea loved this idea and had another one. “Let’s have the other gods choose one among them to be sacrificed and provide the blood. Let’s have them name the guilty one.”
They went to the assembled gods, who liked the idea of men to serve them. “Kingu is the one who made Tiamat rebel and instigated warfare,” they said. “He is the one we give over for punishment.” Before Ea and Marduk, the gods cut and killed Kingu, and mankind was made of blood and clay to toil in service to the gods.
The remainder of the poem describes the way that Marduk divided powers among the gods and established heaven and the underworld, how he commanded the building of cities and shrines, how the gods swore their obeisance to Marduk, and celebrated with mugs of beer and songs of praises for their new all-mighty ruler Marduk. “Marduk who created our world, let them call on his name and sing the song of Marduk, who defeated Tia-mat and took kingship.”
I doubt that I need to say much about the patriarchal nature of this myth. This a story about the male son, champion of the father God, who establishes his dominion by not only defeating the powerful female goddess, the mother of all, but carving up her carcass and making the Earth from it, thus equating, female/woman, with earth/nature, and establishing them as exploitable resources to be dominated by men.
Lots to think about here. This myth like other creation myths, describes how the material world came to be into being and yet the real story, the purpose of the myth, is to describe the creation of humankind and provide the reasons for the establishment of human culture and society.
At the time this myth emerged, each city had a god who was the patron of the city and of primary importance to the inhabitants. Marduk was the city god of Babylon and the importance of Marduk in the myth reflects the ascension of Babylon. Marduk’s victory and his establishment of his particular form of order is also the story of the rise of Babylon, of his chosen people, the ones who claimed to be aligned with this god who was their own.
As Marduk grew in popularity, other gods and goddesses were assimilated into his image or erased, the goddess Inanna/Ishtar for example, who was an earlier patron god of the city. Marduk became the central divine power and the city of Babylon become the center of a great empire. Hammurabi, a king in the Old Babylonian Empire, is best known to us for issuing his Code of Hammurabi, a law code that he claimed he received from the gods. In his code, the king reworked the earlier Sumerian laws and punishments. He also required that people worship his god Marduk.
The Babylonians were very powerful. But history reveals that this was the final stage of their empire. They were the first of five great empires of the Iron Age and power passed first to the Assyrians, then the Persians, Greeks, and finally the Romans. The influence of the Babylonian mythology has lasted far longer than the dreams of their kings.
Like the even earlier Sumerian myths, the tablets of cuneiform texts of the Babylonian empire were lost for hundreds of years, destroyed by conquering peoples, buried by desert sands. In the mid-19th century, scholars, religious institutions, and European museums began sponsoring excavations to the Middle East or Mesopotamia in search of physical proof for the historical accuracy of what was then thought, by these folks at least, to be the oldest book in the world– the Bible.
What was found, and what is known today, is the opposite. These even older myths and the Babylonian Enuma Elish in particular, preceded and inspired the later Hebrew myths. The description of watery chaos, the fall of man, the Great Flood— all of these mythic events are part of the earlier stories. The god Marduk is the model for the god of later monotheistic religions: an all-powerful warrior, creator, and father who expects human beings to honor him and his gifts with devoted service. Thus, we can choose to be allies in his war against chaos, that is, the forces that threaten his established order.
If this myth sprung from the early days of agriculture, cities, and laws, refined in the laws of Hammurabi–do we need to live it today? Perhaps these myths, these images and ideas, were necessary to the cultural evolution of our species, who knows? Haven’t we moved beyond the conditions and worldview of the 14th century BCE?
Maybe you see parallels between the cultural transition in this myth and our current collective passage?
“Male” and “female,” for example, are metaphors that people have concretized for centuries. Analogies that extend understanding our understanding of the world and have also been taken as facts and rules to live by. Are these literalizations “truth?” Do they support us in making the world we need? And parenthetically, should I take the thunder you probably hear in this recording as a sign?
In my mind’s eye I see the image of Tiamat being held down by the wind. How it holds her mouth open. How she is filled with invading winds and can’t move and can’t speak. Matter, the matter that becomes the earth, is rendered passive, inert, defenseless, and silent through the power of our stories and concepts. This image brought to mind Woman and Nature, The Roaring Inside Her by Susan Griffin. Published in 1978, this book is still a landmark and valuable resource for meditation on the results of this historical equivalency of woman with nature.
When I took the book from shelf this morning and turned to the opening pages, the language of Griffin’s dedication– she dedicated the book to Adrienne Rich– struck me. Griffin writes, “These words are written for those of us whose language is not heard, whose words have been stolen, or erased, those robbed of language, who were called voiceless, or mute, even the earthworms, even the shellfish and the sponges, for those of us who speak our own language.”
This weaving of language and imposed silence with creatures of the. earth and of the sea resonates with my sense of Tiamat, as she is assaulted by the evil winds under Marduk’s command.
There are a couple other details in this myth of Tiamat and Marduk that I want to highlight but let’s shifts gears here for a moment to make space for some thanks and announcements.
In last episode I shared news about a new publication from the Joseph Campbell Foundation, Goddesses A Skeleton key Study Guide. Now the second in the series, Myths to Live By: A Skeleton Key Study Guide is available. I’m the author of the Myths to Live by Skeleton Key, I’m happy to say. And revisiting Campbell’s work in this way, writing this guide, was an interesting experience for me. I hope the skeleton key unlocks Campbell’s Myths To Live By for you and I’m going to post a link to the JCF website and the skeleton keys series, with the transcript of this episode.
I’m also– or primarily, mentioning this because the Joseph Campbell Foundation is hosting a series of free author webinars in conjunction with the study guides. The Myths To Live By webinar will take place Saturday, August 5, at 10:00 am Pacific time. I invite you to attend if this sounds interesting and hope to see you there.
A big welcome to new email subscribers: Jan, Tsu’wisiwma, Simon, Gail, Gillian, Sarah, Caroline, Michael, and Jack. Welcome to Myth Matters!
If you’re new to Myth Matters, I invite you to head over to the Mythic Mojo website. You will find a transcript of this episode, information about Story Oracle readings and my mentoring and consulting services, and you can also join the email list if you’d like to receive links to new Myth Matters episodes in your inbox.
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Now, picking up our earlier thread. I’ve been talking about patriarchy, the subjugation of woman and nature, and the lasting influence of this long-lost Babylonian myth. So, if we want to deconstruct this paradigm, is there anything in the images of creator and creation in this myth, that can help us with this task, the task of culture creation? There may be some clues.
Tiamat, one of the ancient great Mother goddesses, creates from herself, her own body. Her creation requires another body, a different body, the fertilizing freshwater of Apsû. The two of them. The substance of both. Marduk like other unpartnered male deities, creates from material that is not his essence. He looks outside himself for something he can use to make something.
When all is created from the substance of the creator– usually the Great Mother but let’s not leave out Apsû— all of creation is divine and has a place in the sacred order. When the creator utilizes materials other than the self, the creation is not inherently divine. Divinity is no longer a shared quality of creator and creation. God is something that his creation cannot be or become. They no longer share essence and identity. They must be in relationship on the god’s terms and the creation has the task of trying to discern these terms and obey.
There’s also a difference in the perspective on chaos and order. In the mother’s creation, order arises from chaos as the completion of the potential contained in it, and is later subsumed back into chaos, and then order emerges again. This is a dynamic process of ongoing creation, of repetition and renewal. The metaphysical position here is the shared nature of chaos and order, as states or dynamics that are both qualities of the One. Of the underlying Unity in motion.
In the case of Marduk, exemplar of the unpartnered father, creation is the emergence of order to oppose chaos and hold it at bay. Chaos is the enemy. Maintaining order is the battle. Change is unwelcome. Destruction is feared because it is understood as the end, not the beginning of the emergence of new potentials.
One final thought. We notice that Apsû, the god of freshwater and primal father, spouse of Tiamat, has also been vanquished by the younger gods, his children. Not only the great goddess but also the primal father. Apsû though, he had no qualms about destroying his children. This set could be replaced. He can begat more, right, if these displease him.
Tiamat, on the other hand, is vulnerable to the young gods because she loves them. “How can we destroy what we have given birth to?“ she asks.
Yes, she will give birth to others, and yet she has regard for each. This attention to each creation as singular and unique, to see individuals as opposed to general categories, is an essential quality of love. Tiamat is killed and dismembered in this myth. Is this a myth of what is natural and inevitable, or does it tell us something about the nature of the battle and the real enemy?
Tiamat is disturbed and she’s asked to choose sides. She decides to fight with those who still profess to love her. Is this the moment that she forgets what she is and participates in her ultimate subjugation?
Let’s part ways with this poem by Mary Oliver titled “Some Things, Say The Wise Ones.” I found a recording of Oliver reading this poem at a town hall in Seattle and I will post it with the transcript to this episode. For right now, you’re listening to me.
“Some Things, Say The Wise Ones.”
Feel free to email me in response to this episode or post a comment on the mythicmojo website. If you have questions about mythology, I’ll do my best to answer them.
If we have a better understanding of our need for myth, and all that our old stories offer, we can live more satisfying lives. We can inhabit a better story and create a more beautiful, just and sustainable world.
And that’s it for me, Catherine Svehla and Myth Matters. Thank you so much for listening. Take good care of yourself and until next time, keep the mystery in your life alive.
Helpful Links:
The Text of W.G. Lambert’s translation of the Enuma Elish
Woman and Nature, The Roaring Inside Her by Susan Griffin
Mary Oliver reads “Some Things, Say The Wise Ones”
The Joseph Campbell Foundation Skeleton Key Study Guides
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